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Coffee beans and a cup of coffeeCoffee as a drink, usually served hot, is prepared from the roasted
seeds (beans) of the coffee plant. It is one of mankind's chief sources of the psychostimulant caffeine. Because
of this, coffee's nutritional benefits are disputed, sometimes labeled a cure-all, other times labeled a health
hazard (see caffeinism).
Coffee bean types
Coffea arabica - BrazilThere are two main species of the coffee plant; Coffea arabica is the traditional coffee,
and considered superior in flavor. Coffea robusta, which is higher in caffeine, can be cultivated in environments
where arabica will not thrive, leading to its use as an inexpensive substitute for arabica in many commercial coffee
products. Robusta is not usually consumed by itself, due to its bitter and acidic flavor, most notably reminiscent
of burning rubber. Higher quality robustas are used as ingredients in some espresso blends.
Coffee is the world's second most widely traded product [1] (http://www.ineedcoffee.com/02/04/vietnam/). Arabica
coffees were traditionally named by the port they were exported from, the two oldest being Mocha and Java. The
modern coffee trade is much more specific about origin, labeling coffees by country, region, and sometimes even
the producing estate. Coffee aficionados may even distinguish auctioned coffees by lot number. The largest coffee
exporting nation is Brazil, but in recent years, as the demand for coffee beans has risen, the coffee bean market
has been flooded by large quantities of inexpensive but very low grade robusta beans from Vietnam [2] (http://www.ineedcoffee.com/02/04/vietnam/),
mostly destined for large industrial clients (instant coffee producers, etc.) where unappetizing appearance or
aroma, or the presence of contaminating debris and so forth are less serious problems.
One unusual and very expensive variety of robusta is the Indonesian Kopi Luwak. The beans are collected from the
droppings of the Common Palm Civet, whose digestive processes give it a distinctive flavour.
Preparation
Aging
Although not well-known, certain types of coffee improve with age; they obtain a less acidic, more well-balanced
flavor. Several coffee producers sell coffee beans that have been aged to 3 years, and there are several specialty
stores (such as Toko Aroma in Bandung, Indonesia) which age their unroasted beans to 8 years.
Roasting
The roasting process is integral to producing a savory cup of coffee. When roasted, the green coffee bean expands
to nearly double its original size, changing in color and density. As the bean absorbs heat, the color shifts to
yellow and then to a light "cinnamon" brown. During roasting oils appear on the surface of the bean.
The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source.
Unroasted coffee beans at various stages R-L: fresh picked, after drying, 1 year after drying. Photos taken at
Toko Aroma in Bandung, Indonesia.
Unroasted coffee beans at later stages. The beans are 7 and 8 years old. Photos taken at Toko Aroma in Bandung,
Indonesia.
An old large-capacity coffee roaster made from cast-iron. It is wood-fired, and is located at Toko Aroma, Bandung,
Indonesia
Roasted coffee beans
At lighter roasts, the bean will exhibit more of its "origin flavor" - the flavors created in the bean
by the soil and weather conditions in the location where it was grown. Coffee beans from famous regions like Java
and Kenya are usually roasted lightly so their signature characteristics dominate the flavor. A roasting method
native to the Ipoh town in Malaysia involves the inclusion of butter during the roasting process, producing a variety
of roast known as the Ipoh "white" coffee.
As the beans darken to a deep brown, the origin flavors of the bean are eclipsed by the flavors created by the
roasting process itself. At darker roasts, the "roast flavor" is so dominant that it can be difficult
to distinguish the origin of the beans used in the roast. These roasts are sold by the degree of roast, ranging
from "Light Cinnamon Roast" through "Vienna Roast" to "French Roast" and beyond.
The dividing line between extremely dark roast and "burnt" is a matter of some debate. Contrary to popular
belief, the darker roasts and more stronger flavored coffees do not deliver any more caffeine than lighter roasts.
Major national coffee suppliers tailor their product to tastes in particular regions of the country; for instance,
a can of ground coffee purchased in the Northeast or Northwest of the United States will contain a darker roast
than an identically appearing can purchased in the central United States.
In the 19th century coffee was usually bought in the form of green beans and roasted in a frying pan. This form
of roasting requires much skill to do well, and fell out of favor when vacuum sealing of pre-roasted coffee became
possible. Unfortunately, because coffee emits CO2 for days after it is roasted, one must allow the coffee to get
slightly stale before it can be vacuum sealed. For this reason two technologies have recently been employed: Illy
has begun to use pressurized cans and many roasters bag whole beans immediately after roasting in bags with pressure
release valves. Today home roasting is becoming popular again. Computerized drum roasters are available which simplify
home roasting, and some home roasters will simply roast in an oven or in air popcorn poppers. Once roasted, coffee
loses its flavor quickly, although being kept in the absence of oxygen can greatly delay the process. Although
some prefer to wait 24 hours after roasting to brew the first cup, all agree that it begins to get off-flavors
and bitterness about a week after roasting, even under ideal conditions.
Grinding
The fineness of the grounds has a major impact on flavour, with finer grinding leading to a more intense and full
flavour. The main reason to use coarser grounds is simply to prevent the grounds from being pushed through coarser
filter types (such as the cafetière), or to allow the grounds to settle rapidly where there is no filter.
The rate of deterioration increases when the coffee is ground, as a result of the greater surface area exposed.
Until relatively recently, it was almost impossible to find whole beans in American stores, with ground coffee
being the only variety available; with the rise of coffee as a gourment beverage, however, it has become much more
popular to grind the beans at home before brewing, and there are many home appliances available which are dedicated
to the process.
There are two methods of producing coffee grounds ready for brewing.
Grinding: burr based with two revolving elements crushing or "tearing" the bean and with less risk of
burning. Burr grinders can be either wheel or conical with the latter being quieter and having less chance of clogging.
The grinding burrs in these machines wear rapidly, however, which makes them less popular in the home.
Conical Burr Grinders preserve the most aroma and can grind very fine and very consistent. The intricate design
of the steel burrs allow a high gear reduction to slow down the grinding speed. The slower the speed the less heat
is imparted to the ground coffee thus preserving maximum amount of aroma. Because of the wide range of grind settings
these grinders are ideal for all kinds of coffee equipment, Espresso, Drip, Percolators, French Press. The better
Conical Burr Grinders can also grind extra fine for the preparation of Turkish coffee. Grinding speed is generally
below 500 rpm.
Burr Grinders with disk type burrs grind at a faster speed than conical burr grinders and create a bit more warmth
in the coffee (10,000 to 20,000 rpm). They are the most economical way of getting a consistent grind in a wide
range of applications. They are well suited for most home pump espresso machines. However they do not grind as
fine as Conical Burr Grinders.
Chopping: Most modern 'grinders' actually chop the bean into pieces (and some coffee drinkers merely use a home
blender to do the job). Although giving a similar result to proper grinding and enjoying a much longer life before
wearing out the blades, purists suggest that the result is less effective in producing a homogenously ground result.
Blade Grinders “smash” the beans with a blade at very high speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm). The ground coffee has
larger and smaller particles and is warmer than ground coffee from burr grinders. Blade grinders create “coffee
dust” which can clog up sieves in espresso machines and French presses. These type of grinders are suitable for
drip coffee makers. They also can do a great job for grinding spices and herbs. They are not recommended for use
with pump espresso machines.
Pounding: Turkish coffee is produced from an infusion where the beans are pounded nearly to dust in a mortar and
pestle. It produces grounds which are too fine for other preparation methods.
Brewing
Coffee can be brewed in several different ways, but these methods fall into four main groups depending upon how
the water is introduced to the coffee grounds. If the method allows the water to pass only once through the grounds,
the resulting brew will contain mainly the more soluble components (including caffeine), whereas if the water is
repeatedly cycled through the beans (as with the common percolator), the brew will contain more of the relatively
less soluble compounds found in the bean; as these tend to be more bitter, that type of process is less favored
by coffee afficianados.
Coffee in all these forms is made with coffee grounds (coffee beans that have been roasted and ground) and hot
water, the grounds either remaining behind or being filtered out of the cup or jug after the main soluble compounds
have been removed. The fineness of the grinding required differs by the method of intended drink production.
Boiling:
Turkish coffee. A very early method of making coffee, still used in the Middle East, North Africa, Turkey and Greece,
is to put the water together with very finely ground coffee in a narrow-topped pot, called an ibrik (Arabic), cezve
(Turkish) or dzezva (Serbo-Croatian), and allow it to briefly come to the boil. It is sometimes drunk sweet, in
which case sugar is added to the pot and boiled with the coffee; it also often flavoured with cardamom. The result
is small cups of very strong coffee with a foam on the top and thick layer of sludgy grounds at the bottom of the
cup.
"Cowboy coffee" is made by simply boiling coarse grounds with water in a pot, letting the grounds settle
and pouring off the liquid to drink. While the name suggests that this method was derived or used by cowboys, presumably
on the trail around a campfire, it is also frequently seen among others who do not drink coffee frequently and
lack any specialized equipment for otherwise brewing.
Pressure:
Espresso is made with pressurised hot water which converts to steam within a tightly packed container of very finely
ground extremely darkly roasted grounds, during the brewing process. It can be served alone (often after an evening
meal), and is the basis for many coffee drinks. It is one of the strongest tasting forms of coffee regularly consumed,
with a distinctive flavour and crema, the stiff foam standing over the liquid. Classically, in Europe, the crema
was the point of the exercise, rather than the liquid below it in the cup.
A Percolator (or mocha pot) is a three-chamber design which boils water in the lower section and forces the boiling
water through the separated coffee grounds in the middle section. The resultant, almost espresso strength, coffee
(although without the crema) is collected in the upper section. It usually sits directly on a heater or stove.
Some models feature a glass or plastic top to view the coffee as it is forced up.
Gravity:
Drip brew (or filter coffee) is made by letting hot water drip onto coffee grounds held in a filter (paper or perforated
metal). Strength varies according to the ratio of water to coffee, but is typically weaker than espresso.
The common electric percolator which was almost universal prior to the 1970s and is still popular today differs
from the pressure percolator described above, in that it uses the pressure of the boiling water to force it to
a chamber above the grounds, but relies on gravity to pass the water down through the grounds, where it then repeats
the process until shut off by an internal timer. The coffee produced is held in low esteem by coffee afficianados
because of this multiple pass process.
Steeping:
A French press (or cafetière) is a tall narrow glass cylinder with a plunger that includes a filter. The
coffee and hot water are mixed in the cylinder (normally for a few minutes) before the plunger, in the form of
a metal foil, is depressed, leaving the coffee at the top ready to be poured.
Coffee bags (akin to tea bags) are much rarer than their tea equivalents, as they are much bulkier (more coffee
is required in a coffee bag than tea in a tea bag).
Electronic coffee makers boil the water and brew the infusion with little human assistance and sometimes according
to a timer. Some even grind the beans automatically before brewing. Connoisseurs shun such conveniences as compromising
the flavor of the coffee; they prefer freshly ground beans and traditional brewing techniques.
Presentation
A cup of black coffee.Black coffee is drip brew, percolated or French press style coffee served without milk; sugar
may be added.
White coffee is coffee with milk added after preparation, perhaps with sugar.
Cappuccino comprises equal parts espresso, steamed milk, and frothed milk in 4.5 oz. (served in a 5 oz. cup), is
occasionally garnished with powdered cinnamon, other spices, or cocoa.
Caffè e latte (or caffelatte or in America plainly latte, which is Italian for "milk" ) is espresso
with steamed milk, traditionally topped with frothed milk. It is not as strong as a Cappuccino because of a greater
quantity of milk.
A Café au lait is like a Latte except that drip-brewed coffee is used instead of espresso, with an equal
amount of milk. Sugar is added to taste.
Americano style coffee is made with espresso (normally several shots) and hot water to give a similar strength
(but different flavour) from drip brewed coffee.
Iced coffee is normally served with milk and sugar.
Flavoured coffee: In some cultures, flavored coffees are common. Chocolate is a common additive that is either
sprinkled on top or added to the coffee to imitate the taste of Mocha. Other flavourings include spices such as
cinnamon, nutmeg, cardamom or Italian syrups. In the Maghreb Orange bloom is used as a flavoring
Irish coffee is hot brewed coffee spiked with whiskey and with a layer of cream on the top.
Frothy Madras filter coffeeIndian (Madras) filter coffee, particularly common in the south of the country, is prepared
off rough ground dark roasted coffee beans (Arabica, PeaBerry). The coffee is drip brewed for a few hours in a
traditional metal Coffee filter before being served with milk and sugar. The ratio is usually (1/4 - decoction,
3/4 - milk).
Vietnamese style coffee is another form of drip brew. In this form, hot water is allowed to drip though a metal
mesh into a cup with the resulting strong brew being poured over ice into a glass containing sweetened condensed
milk. Due to the high volume of coffee grounds required to make strong coffee in this fashion the brewing process
is quite slow.
Armenian coffee (Surj), Greek coffee or Turkish coffee is made by boiling finely ground coffee and water together
in an ibrik, which is a long-handled, open, brass or copper pot. When done, it is poured directly into tiny demitasse
cups, along with the fine grounds. The coffee is then allowed to settle before consumption. Spice and sugar are
often added into the mix.
Kopi tubruk is an Indonesian-style coffee similar in presentation to the Greek coffee. However, kopi tubruk is
made from coarse coffee grounds, and is boiled together with a solid lump of sugar. It is popular on the islands
of Java and Bali and their surroundings.
A demitasse is, somewhat similar to an espresso without the crema, a small cup of strong black coffee, often served
after a meal.
Coffee Pots come in many shapes and sizes. Traditional coloring uses brown or black colored pots for regular caffeinated
coffee, and orange is used for decaffeinated coffee.
Brewed coffee left on the warmer will deteriorate rapidly in flavor; even at room temperature deterioration will
occur. However, if kept in an oxygen free environment, it can last almost indefinitely at room temperature; sealed
containers of brewed coffee are sometimes commercially available in food stores in America or Europe.
Chocolate covered roasted coffee beans are available as a confection; unless the beans have been decaffeinated,
these will deliver the same caffeine content as brewed coffee and have the same physiological effects.
Instant coffee
Instant coffeeInstant and soluble coffee has been dried into soluble powder or granules, which can be quickly dissoved
in hot water for consumption. It is distinct from fresh coffee and is commercially prepared differently, by vigorous
extraction of almost all soluble material from the ground roasted beans. This process naturally produces a different
mix of components than home brewing; in particular, the percentage of caffeine in instant coffee is less, and less
desirable bitter flavor components are more present. Sometimes lower grade beans are used. Opinions on instant
coffee range from "intolerable imposter" to "reasonable alternative" to "better than the
real thing", and in some areas of the world it is seen as a sophisticated beverage popular in America. Some
varieties are freeze dried in an effort to maintain a flavor more similar to brewed coffee. In countries where
it is popular it is often referred to as "Café Puro" to the horror of coffee aficionados. Instant
coffee is also convenient for preparing iced coffee, which is popular in warmer climates and/or hot seasons.
Liquid coffee concentrate
Another type of pre-made coffee is liquid coffee concentrate. It is described as having a flavor about as good
as low-grade robusta coffee. It costs about 10 cents a cup to produce. Its primary use is in large institutional
situations where coffee needs to be produced for thousands of people at the same time. The machines used to process
it can handle up to 500 cups an hour, or 1,000 if the water is pre-heated.[3] (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coffee#fn_wsjcomrep)
Social aspects of coffee
See also: Coffeehouse for a social history of coffee, and caffé for specifically Italian traditions.
The United States is the largest market for coffee, followed by Germany. Finland consumes the most coffee per capita.
Coffee is so popular in The Americas, the Middle East, and Europe that many restaurants specialize in coffee; these
are called "coffeehouses" or "cafés". Most cafés also serve tea, sandwiches,
pastries, and other light refreshments. Some cafés are miniature shacks that specialize in coffee to go
for hurried travelers. Some travelers transport their coffee in vacuum bottles, which can keep a beverage hot for
hours.
In some countries, notably in northern Europe, coffee parties are a popular form of entertaining. Besides coffee,
the host or hostess at the coffee party also serves cake and pastries, hopefully homemade.
The stimulant properties of coffee and the fact that coffee does not adversely impact higher mental functions causes
coffee to be associated with white collar jobs. Social habits involving coffee include the morning coffee and coffee
breaks.
See also dunk (biscuit) for the habit of dipping one's biscuit or cake into one's coffee.
Health
Coffee as a stimulant
Coffee contains caffeine, which acts as a stimulant. For this reason, it is often consumed in the morning, and
during working hours. Students preparing for examinations with late-night "cram sessions" use coffee
to maintain their concentration. Office workers take a "coffee break" whenever their energy is diminished.
Recent research has uncovered additional stimulating effects of coffee which are not related to the caffeine. Coffee
contains an as yet unknown chemical agent which stimulates the production of cortisone and adrenaline, two stimulating
hormones.
For occasions when one wants to enjoy the flavor of coffee with less stimulation, decaffeinated coffee, also called
decaf, is available. This is coffee from which most of the caffeine has been removed, by the swiss water process,
which involves the soaking of raw beans to absorb the caffeine, or the use of a chemical solvent such as trichloroethylene
("tri"), or the more popular methylene chloride, in a similar process. There are also tisanes that resemble
coffee in taste but contain no caffeine (see below).
Coffee dependence is widespread and withdrawal symptoms are real. See the caffeine article for more on the pharmacological
effects of caffeine.
Benefits
Coffee increases the effectiveness of pain killers -- especially migraine medications -- and can rid some people
of asthma. Some of the beneficial effects may be restricted to one sex, for instance it has been shown to reduce
suicide for women, and prevent gallstones and gallbladder disease in men. It also reduces the incidence of diabetes
in both sexes, but reduces the risk by about 30% in women and over 50% in men. Coffee can also reduce the incidence
of liver cirrhosis and prevent colon and bladder cancers. Coffee can reduce the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma,
a variety of liver cancer (Inoue, 2005). Finally, coffee reduces the incidence of heart disease, though whether
this is simply because it rids your blood of excess fat or because of its stimulant effect is unknown.
There are of course the reasons most people drink coffee such as its ability to increase short term recall and
increase IQ. It also changes the metabolism of a person so that their body burns a higher proportion of lipids
to carbohydrates, which can help athletes avoid muscle fatigue.
Some of these health effects are realized by as little as 4 cups a day (24 oz), but others kick in at 6 or more
cups a day (32 oz or more).
NOTE: Health benefits of decaffeinated coffee have not been found.
Risks
Caffeinism, a condition which mimics mental illnesses ranging from anxiety and bipolar disorder to schizophrenia
and even psychosis, is among the more worrisome effects of acute or chronic coffee consumption.
Many coffee drinkers are familiar with "coffee jitters", a nervous condition that occurs when one has
had too much caffeine. Coffee can also increase blood pressure among those with high blood pressure, but follow-up
studies showed that coffee still decreased the chance of dying from heart disease in the aggregate. Coffee can
also cause insomnia in some, while paradoxically it helps a few sleep more soundly. It can also cause anxiety and
irritability, in some with excessive coffee consumption, and some as a withdrawal symptom. There are also sex specific
effects, in some PMS sufferers it increases the symptoms, and it can reduce fertility in women, also it may increase
the risk of osteoporosis in postmenopausal women, and there may be risks to a fetus if a pregnant woman drinks
8 or more cups a day (48 oz or more).
A February 2003 Danish study of 18,478 women linked heavy coffee consumption during pregnancy to significantly
increased risk of stillbirths (but no significantly increased risk of infant death in the first year). "The
results seem to indicate a threshold effect around four to seven cups per day," the study reported. Those
who drank eight or more cups a day (48 oz or more) were at 220% increased risk compared to non-drinkers. This study
has not yet been repeated but has caused some doctors to caution against excessive coffee consumption during pregnancy.
Decaffienated coffee is occasionally regarded as a potential health risk to pregnant women, due to the high incidence
of chemical solvents used to extract the caffeine. These concerns have almost no basis however, as the solvents
in question evaporate between 80-90 degrees Celsius, and coffee beans are decaffeinated before roasting, which
occurs at approximately 200 degrees Celsius. As such, these chemicals, namely trichloroethane and methylene chloride,
are present in trace amounts at most, and neither pose a significant threat to unborn children. Women still worried
about chemical solvents in decaffeinated coffee should opt for beans which use the Swiss Water process, where no
chemicals other than water are used, although higher amounts of caffeine remain.
A study published in 2004 in the American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (abstract available online at [4] (http://www.ajcn.org/cgi/content/abstract/80/4/862))
tried to discover why the beneficial and detrimental effects of coffee are conflicting and found that consumption
of coffee is associated with significant elevations in biochemical markers of inflammation. This is a detrimental
effect of coffee on the cardiovascular system which may explain why coffee has so far only been shown to help the
heart at levels of 4 or less cups a day (20oz or less).
Caffeine is toxic in high enough doses. It is unlikely though, that a toxic dose will be ingested in the form of
common drinks. In concentrated forms such as pills or powders it can be taken in sufficient quantities to cause
vomiting, unconsciousness, and even death. A single box of caffeine pills can be fatal if taken at one time.
The health risks of decaffeinated coffee have been studied, with varying results. One variable is the type of decaffeination
process used; while some involve the use of organic solvents which may leave residual traces, others rely on steam.
Coffee as a fertilizer
Spent coffee grounds are a good fertilizer in gardens because of their high nitrogen content. Coffee grounds also
contain potassium, phosphorus and many other trace elements that aid plant development. Many gardeners report that
roses love coffee grounds and when furnished with the same become big and colorful. When added to a compost pile,
spent coffee grounds compost very rapidly.
Coffee grounds can be obtained inexpensively (usually free) from local coffee shops. Large coffee shop chains may
have a policy of composting coffee grounds or giving them away to those who ask.
COFFEE (Fr: cafe, Ger. Kaffee). This important and valuable article of food is the produce chiefly
of Coffea arabica, a Rubiaceous plant indigenous to Abyssinia, which, however, as cultivated originally, spread
outwards from the southern parts of Arabia. The name is probably derived from the Arabic K'hawah, although by some
it has been traced to Kaffa, a province in Abyssinia, in which the tree grows wild.
The genus Cojfea, to which the common coffee tree belongs, contains about 25 species in the tropics of the Old
World, mainly African. Besides being found wild in Abyssinia, the common coffee plant appears to be widely disseminated
in Africa, occurring wild in the Mozambique district, on the shores of the Victoria Nyanza, and in Angola on the
west coast. The coffee leaf disease in Ceylon brought into prominence Liberian coffee (C. liberica), a native of
the west coast of Africa, now extensively grown in several parts of the world. Other species of economic importance
are Sierra Leone coffee (C. stenophylla) and Congo coffee (C. robusta), both of which have been introduced into
and are cultivated on a small scale in various parts of the tropics. C. excelsa is another species of considerable
promise.
The common Arabian coffee shrub is an evergreen plant, which under natural conditions grows to a height of from
18 to 20 ft., with oblong-ovate, acuminate, smooth and shining leaves, measuring about 6 in. in length by 2\ wide.
Its flowers, which FIG. i.Branch of Coffea arabica.
are produced in dense clusters in the axils of the leaves, have a five-toothed calyx, a tubular five-parted corolla,
five stamens and a single bifid style. The flowers are pure white in color, with a rich fragrant odour, and the
plants in blossom have a lovely and attractive appearance, but the bloom is very evanescent. The fruit is a fleshy
berry, having the appearance and size of a small cherry, and as it ripens it assumes a dark red color. Each fruit
contains two seeds embedded in a yellowish pulp, and the seeds are enclosed in a thin membranous endocarp (the
"parchment"). Between each seed and the parchment is a delicate covering called the " silver skin."
The seeds which constitute the raw coffee " beans " of commerce are plano-convex in form, the flat surfaces
which are laid against each other within the berry having a longitudinal furrow or groove. When only one seed is
developed in a fruit it is not flattened on one side, but circular in cross section. Such seeds form " pea-berry
" coffee.
The seeds are of a soft, semi-translucent, bluish or greenish color, hard and tough in texture. The regions best
adapted for the cultivation of coffee are well-watered mountain slopes at an elevation ranging from 1000 to 4000
ft. above sea-level, within the tropics, and possessing a mean annual temperature of about 65 to 70 F.
The Liberian coffee plant (C. liberica} has larger leaves, flowers and fruits, and is of a more robust and hardy
constitution, than Arabian coffee. The seeds yield a highly aromatic and well-flavoured coffee (but by no means
equal to Arabian), and the plant is very prolific and yields heavy crops. Liberian coffee grows, moreover, at low
altitudes, and flourishes in many situations unsuitable to the Arabian coffee. It grows wild in great abundance
along the whole of the Guinea coast.
History.The early history of coffee as an economic product is involved in considerable obscurity, the absence of
fact being compensated for by a profusion of conjectural statements and mythical stories. The use of coffee (C.
arabica) in Abyssinia was recorded in the i5th century, and was then stated to have been practised from time immemorial.
Neighboring countries, however, appear to have been quite ignorant of its value. Various legendary accounts are
given of the discovery of the beneficial properties of the plant, one ascribing it to a flock of sheep accidentally
browsing on the wild shrubs, with the result that they became elated and sleepless at night! Its physiological
action in dissipating drowsiness and preventing sleep was taken advantage of in connection with the prolonged religious
service of the Mahommedans, and its use as a devotional antisoporific stirred up fierce opposition on the part
of the strictly orthodox and conservative section of the priests. Coffee by them was held to be an intoxicating
beverage, and therefore prohibited by the Koran, and severe penalties were threatened to those addicted to its
use. Notwithstanding threats of divine retribution and other devices, the coffee-drinking habit spread rapidly
among the Arabian Mahommedans, and the growth of coffee and its use as a national beverage became as inseparably
connected with Arabia as tea is with China. -
Towards the close of the i6th century the use of coffee was recorded by a European resident in Egypt, and about
this epoch it came into general use in the near East. The appreciation of coffee as a beverage in Europe dates
from the I7th century. " Coffee-houses " were soon instituted, the first being opened in Constantinople
and Venice. In London coffee-houses date from 1652, when one was opened in St Michael's Alley, Cornhill. They soon
became popular, and the role played by them in the social life of the 17th and i8th centuries is well known. Germany,
France, Sweden and other countries adopted them at about the same time as Great Britain. In Europe, as in Arabia,
coffee at first made its way into favor in the face of various adverse and even prohibitive restrictions. Thus
at one time in Germany it was necessary to obtain a licence to roast coffee. In England Charles II. endeavoured
to suppress coffee-houses on the ground that they were centres of political agitation, his royal proclamation stating
that they were the resort of disaffected persons " who devised and spread abroad divers false, malicious and
scandalous reports, to the defamation of His Majestys government, and to the disturbance of the peace and quiet
of the nation.
Up to the close of the 17th century the worlds entire, although limited, supply of coffee was obtained from the
province of Yemen in south Arabia, where the true celebrated Mocha or Mokka coffee is still produced. At this time,
however, plants were successfully introduced from Arabia to Java, where the cultivation was immediately taken up.
The government of Java distributed plants to various places, including the botanic garden of Amsterdam. The Portuguese
introduced coffee into Ceylon. From Amsterdam the Dutch sent the plant to Surinam in 1718, and in the same year
Jamaica received it through the governor Sir Nicholas Lawes. Within a few years coffee reached the other West Indian
islands, and spread generally through the tropics of the New World, which now produce by far the greater portion
of the worlds supply.
Cultivation and Preparation for Market.Coffee plants are grown from seeds, which, as in the case of other crops,
should be obtained from selected trees of desirable characteristics. The seeds may be sown at stake, i.e. in the
actual positions the mature plants are to occupy, or raised in a nursery and afterwards transplanted. The choice
of methods is usually determined by various local considerations. Nurseries are desirable where there is risk of
drought killing seedlings in the open. Whilst young the plants usually require to be shaded, and this may be done
by growing castor oil plants, cassava (Manihot), maize or Indian corn, bananas, or various other useful crops between
the coffee, until the latter develop and occupy the ground. Sometimes, but by no means always, permanent shading
is afforded by special shade trees, suh as species of the coral tree (Erythrina) and other leguminous trees. Opinions
as to the necessity of shade trees varies in different countries; e.g. in Brazil and at high elevations in Jamaica
they are not employed, whereas in Porto Rico many look on them as absolutely essential. It is probable that in
many cases where shade trees are of advantage their beneficial action may be indirect, in affording protection
from wind, drought or soil erosion, and, when leguminous plants are employed, in enriching the soil in nitrogen.
The plants begin to come into bearing in their second or third~ year, but on the average the fifth is the first
year of considerable yield. There may be two, three, or even moi~e flushes of blossom in one year, and flowers
and fruits in all stages may thus be seen on one plant. The fruits are fully ripe about seven months after the
flowers open; the ripe fruits are fleshy, and of a deep red color, whence the name of cherry. When mature the fruits
are picked by hand, or allowed to fall of their own accord or by shaking the plant. The subsequent preparation
may be according to (I) the dry or (2) the wet method.
In the dry method the cherries are spread in a thin layer, often on a stone drying floor, or barbecue, and exposed
to the sun. Protection is necessary against heavy dew or rain. The dried cherries can be stored for any length
of time, and later the dried pulp and the parchment are removed, setting free the two beans contained in each cherry.
This primitive and simple method is employed in Arabia, in Brazil and other countries. In Brazil it is giving place
to the more modern method described below.,
In the wet, or as it is sometimes called, West Indian method, the cherties are put in a tank of water. On large
estates galvanized spouting is often employed to convey the beans by the help of running water from the fields
to the tank. The mature cherries sink, and are drawn off from the tank through pipes to the pulping machines. Here
they are subjected to the action of a roughened cylinder revolving closely against a curved iron plate. The fleshy
portion is reduced to a pulp, and the mixture of pulp and liberated seeds (each still enclosed in its parchment)
is carried away to a second tank of water and stirred. The light pulp is removed by a stream of water and the seeds
allowed to settle. Slight fermentation and subsequent washings, accompanied by trampling with bare feet and stirring
by rakes or special machinery, result in the parchment coverings being left quite clean. The beans are now dried
on barbecues, in trays, &c.,
or by artificial heat if climatic conditions render this necessary. Recent experiments in Porto Rico tend to show
that if the weather is unfavourable during the crop period the pulped coffee can be allowed to remain moist and
even to malt or sprout without injury to- the final value of the product when dried later. The product is now in
the state known as parchment coffee, and may be exported. Before use, however, the parch-, ment must be removed.
This may be done on the estate, at the port of shipment, o~ in the country where imported. The coffee is thoroughly
dried, the parchment broken by a roller, and removed by winnowing. Further rubbing and winnowing removes the silver
skin, and the beans are left in the condition of ordinary unroasted coffee. Grading into large, medium and small
beans, to secure the uniformity desirable in roasting, is effected by the use of a cylindrical or other pattern
sieve, along which the beans are made to travel, encountering first small, then medium, and finally large apertures
or meshes. Damaged beans and foreign matter are removed by hand picking. An average yield of cleaned coffee is
from 1~ to 2 lb per tree, but much greater crops are obtained on new rich lands, and under special conditions.
Production.The centre of production has shifted greatly since coffee first came into use in Europe. Arabia formerly
supplied the world; later the West Indies and then Java took the lead, to be supplanted in turn by Brazil, which
now produces about threequarters of the worlds supply and controls the market.
Brazil.Coffee planting is the chief industry of Brazil, and coffee the principal export. The states of So Paulo,
Rio de Janeiro, Minas Geraes andSantos, containthechiefcoffee-producinglands. Theannual output ranges from about
10,000,000 to 16,000,000 bags (of 120 lb each), whilst the worlds annual consumption is more or less stationary
at about 16,000,000 bags. The overwhelming importance of the Brazilian output is thus evident. Recently efforts
have been made to restrict production to maintain prices, and the Coffee Convention scheme came into force in So
Paulo on December I, 1906, and in Rio de Janeiro and Minas Geraes on January I, 1907. The cultivation in general
is very primitive in character, periodical weeding being almost all the attention the plants receive. Manuring
is commonly confined to mulches of the cut weeds and addition of the coffee husks. New lands in So Paulo yield
from 8o cwt. to 100 cwt. of cleaned coffee per 1000 trees (700 go to the acre); the average yield, however, is
not more than 15 cwt. The plants are at their best when from 10 to 15 years old, but continue yielding for 30 years
or even more.
Other South American CountriesVenezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and to a much less degree Bolivia and Paraguay,
produce coffee, the annual crops of the two former countries being each of about 1,500,000 in value.
Central A merica.Guatemala produces the most in this region; the coffee estates are mainly controlled by Germans,
who have brought them to a high pitch of perfection. The crop ranges in value from about 1,000,000 to 1,500,000
per annum. Costa Rica and San Salvador produce about half this amount In Nicaragua, Honduras and Panama, coffee
is extensively cultivated, and all export the product.
West Indies.Coffee is grown in most of the islands, often only for local use. Haiti produces the largest amount,
the annual value of the crop being about 500,000. Porto Rico formerly had a flourishing industry, but it has declined
owing to various causes. The interior is still expected to be devoted largely to coffee, and the U.S. Department
of Agriculture has carried out experiments to improve methods and ensure the cultivation of better varieties. Jamaica
produces the famous Blue Mountain Coffee, which compares favorably with the best coffees of the world, and also
ordinary or plain grown ; the Blue Mountain is cultivated at elevations of from 3000 to 4500 ft. Coffee usually
ranks third or fourth in value smongst the exports of the island.
Africa, the native country of the coffees, does not now contribute I ny important amount to the worlds output.
In Liberia, the Gold Coast and elsewhere on the West Coast are many plantations, but the low prices ruling of recent
years have caused coffee to be neglected ror more remunerative crops. Coffee is, however, still the principal Ixport
of Nyasaland (British Central Africa), where it was intro3uced as recently as 1894. The area under coffee has been
greatly reduced, owing partly to more attention being paid to cotton, partly to droughts and other causes. In Somaliland
and Abyssinia ~offee cultivation is of very ancient date. Two kinds are exported, Flarrari and Habashi. The former
conwares favorably with Mocha ~offee. The industry could be very considerably extended. In Natal, Rhodesia, &c.,
coffee is grown, but not in sufficient quantity to supply the local demand.
Arabia.The name Mocha is applied generally to coffee produced in Arabia. Turkey and Egypt obtain the best grades.
Traders from these countries go to Arabia, buy the crops on the trees, and supervise its picking and preparation
themselves. The loffee is prepared by the dry method.
India is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire, and produces about one-fifth of the total supply
of the United Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in southern India. The official report
states that the production of coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated region above
the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore, Coorg, and the Madras districts of Malabarand the Nilgiris,
comprising 86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of the whole coffee-producing area is
in Mysore. In Burma, Assam and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1904-1906 there was a reduction of
the area under coffee in India by 21,554 acres.
Ceylon.The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced
Arabian coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived by the British, and developed very
rapidly between 1836 and 1845, when there was a temporary collapse owing to floancial crisis in the United Kingdom.
In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value of about 2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to 430,633,
owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued to decrease, and the value of the crop in
1906 was only 17,258. Liberian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was introduced, but met
with only partial success.
Dutch East Indies.Coffee from this source passes under the general name of Java, that island producing the greatest
amount; Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute. The Java plantations are largely owned
by the government. Much of the coffee from these islands is of a high quality.
A ustralasia.Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories of Australia, but comparatively little is done
with this crop; Queensland produces the largest amount.
Hawaii, &c.In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii
itself, the Kona district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly to the United States, and there
is also a large local consumption.
Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.
The Worlds Trade.The following figures, from the Year-book of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, indicate the
relative importance of the coffee-exporting countries.
Country Exports coffee America Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela, Haiti, Salvador, Guatemala
Mexico, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Porto Rico, Jamaica, Asia Dutch East Indies, British India
Singapore (port of export),
In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680, 855, 878 Ib, due to the Brazil export rising to
1,847,367,771 lb. The aggregate value of the coffee annually entering the worlds markets is about 40,000,000.
Coffee Consumption.The United States of America consume nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing
countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other
countries, but the average consumption per head in the country is about II to 12 lb per annum, an amount equalled
or excelled only in Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head
of the list, it is interesting to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia are almost at the
foot, using only about I lb of coffee per head each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per person
per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the worlds commercial crop. France, about 5 lb per head, takes
about one eighth; and Aubtria-Hungary, about 2 tb, uses some one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much,
but with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head than any other peopleI4 lb to 15 lb per annum.
Their taste is seen also in the relatively high consumption in South Africa. Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom,
follow next in order of total amount used.
In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is often produced locally exact figures are not available.
The average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000 lb per annum; about one-fifth only is produced
in the British empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India and one-twentieth from the British
West Indies.
Coffee-leaf Disease.The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined by the attack of a fungoid disease (Hemileia vastatrix)
known as the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages into every coffee-producing country
in the Old World, and added greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus is a microscopic
one, the minute spores of which, carried by the wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The FIG.
2.Coffee-leaf Disease, Hemileia vastatrix.
I, Part of leaf showing diseased are forming a cluster of patches. spores.
2, Cluster of uredospores. , 4, Ripe uredospores.
3, Transverse section of a 5, A teleutospore.
diseased patch in the leaf 6, A uredospore germinating, showing the hyphae of the the germ-tube is penetrating
fungus pushing between the the leaf.
leaf-cells and tapping them 7, Uredospore germinating.
for nourishment. The hy- u, Uredospore.
phae have broken through 1, Teleutospcre.
in the upper face and 2-7, Highly magnified.
fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to
wither and fall. An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its nascent state destroyed, by powdering
the trees with a mixture of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought by the wind can be
arrested, the plantations may be readily reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rliin. The separation
of plantations by belts of trees to windward is suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.
Microscopic StructureRaw coffee seeds are tough and horny in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and
taste which are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure of coffee allows it to be readily
recognized by means of the microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities, microscopic
examination forms the readiest means of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance of the seed, according
to Dr Hassall, consists of an assemblage
India is the principal coffee-growing region in the British empire, and produces about one-fifth of the total supply
of the United Kingdom. There are some 213,000 acres under coffee, mostly in southern India. The official report
states that the production of coffee is restricted for the most part to a limited area in the elevated region above
the south-western coast, the coffee lands of Mysore, Coorg, and the Madras districts of Malabarand the Nilgiris,
comprising 86% of the whole area under the plant in India. About one-half of the whole coffee-producing area is
in Mysore. In Burma, Assam and Bombay, coffee is of minor importance. During 1904-1906 there was a reduction of
the area under coffee in India by 21,554 acres.
Ceylon.The history of coffee in Ceylon is practically that of the coffee-leaf disease (see below). The Dutch introduced
Arabian coffee in 1720, but abandoned its cultivation later. It was revived by the British, and developed very
rapidly between 1836 and 1845, when there was a temporary collapse owing to floancial crisis in the United Kingdom.
In 1880 the exports of coffee were of the value of about 2,784,163. Ten years later they had fallen to 430,633,
owing to the ravages of the coffee-leaf disease. The output continued to decrease, and the value of the crop in
1906 was only 17,258. Liberian coffee, which is hardier and more resistant to disease, was introduced, but met
with only partial success.
Dutch East Indies.Coffee from this source passes under the general name of Java, that island producing the greatest
amount; Sumatra, Borneo and the Celebes, &c., however, also contribute. The Java plantations are largely owned
by the government. Much of the coffee from these islands is of a high quality.
A ustralasia.Coffee can be cultivated in the northern territories of Australia, but comparatively little is done
with this crop; Queensland produces the largest amount.
Hawaii, &c.In all the islands of the Hawaiian group coffee is grown, but nine-tenths or more is raised in Hawaii
itself, the Kona district being the chief seat of production. The exports go mostly to the United States, and there
is also a large local consumption.
Coffee thrives well also in the Philippines and Guam.
In 1906 there was an increased total of 2,680, 855, 878 Ib, due to the Brazil export rising to 1,847,367,771 lb.
The aggregate value of the coffee annually entering the worlds markets is about 40,000,000.
Coffee Consumption.The United States of America consume nearly one half of all the coffee exported from the producing
countries of the world. This might of course be due merely to the States containing more coffee-drinkers than other
countries, but the average consumption per head in the country is about II to 12 lb per annum, an amount equalled
or excelled only in Norway, Sweden and Holland. Whilst one great branch of the Anglo-Saxon stock is near the head
of the list, it is interesting to note that the United Kingdom and also Canada and Australia are almost at the
foot, using only about I lb of coffee per head each year. Germany, with a consumption of about 6 to 7 lb per person
per annum uses considerably less than a quarter of the worlds commercial crop. France, about 5 lb per head, takes
about one eighth; and Aubtria-Hungary, about 2 tb, uses some one-sixteenth. Holland consumes approximately as much,
but with a much smaller population, the Dutch using more per head than any other peopleI4 lb to 15 lb per annum.
Their taste is seen also in the relatively high consumption in South Africa. Sweden, Belgium and the United Kingdom,
follow next in order of total amount used.
In many tropical countries much coffee is drunk, but as it is often produced locally exact figures are not available.
The average consumption in the United Kingdom is about 50,000,000 lb per annum; about one-fifth only is produced
in the British empire, and of this about nineteen-twentieths come from India and one-twentieth from the British
West Indies.
Coffee-leaf Disease.The coffee industry in Ceylon was ruined by the attack of a fungoid disease (Hemileia vastatrix)
known as the Ceylon coffee-leaf disease. This has since extended its ravages into every coffee-producing country
in the Old World, and added greatly to the difficulties of successful cultivation. The fungus is a microscopic
one, the minute spores of which, carried by the wind, settle and germinate upon the leaves of the plant. The FIG.
2.Coffee-leaf Disease, Hemileia vastatrix.
I, Part of leaf showing diseased are forming a cluster of patches. spores.
2, Cluster of uredospores. , 4, Ripe uredospores.
3, Transverse section of a 5, A teleutospore.
diseased patch in the leaf 6, A uredospore germinating, showing the hyphae of the the germ-tube is penetrating
fungus pushing between the the leaf.
leaf-cells and tapping them 7, Uredospore germinating.
for nourishment. The hy- u, Uredospore.
phae have broken through 1, Teleutospcre.
in the upper face and 2-7, Highly magnified.
fungal growth spreads through the substance to the leaf, robbing the leaf of its nourishment and causing it to
wither and fall. An infected plantation may be cleansed, and the fungus in its nascent state destroyed, by powdering
the trees with a mixture of lime and sulphur, but, unless the access of fresh spores brought by the wind can be
arrested, the plantations may be readily reinfected when the lime and sulphur are washed off by rliin. The separation
of plantations by belts of trees to windward is suggested as a check to the spread of the disease.
Microscopic StructureRaw coffee seeds are tough and horny in structure, and are devoid of the peculiar aroma and
taste which are so characteristic of the roasted seeds. The minute structure of coffee allows it to be readily
recognized by means of the microscope, and as roasting does not destroy its distinguishing peculiarities, microscopic
examination forms the readiest means of determining the genuineness of any sample. The substance of the seed, according
to Dr Hassall, consists of an assemblage of vesicles or cells of an angular form, which adhere so firmly together
that they break up into pieces rather than separate into distinct and perfect cells. The cavities of the cells
include, in the form of little drops, a considerable quantity of aromatic volatile ~ oil, on the presence of which
the fragrance and many of the active prin ~ ciples of the berry depend ~ (see fig. 3).
Physiological Action.
Coffee belongs to the medicinal or auxiliary class of food substances, being solely valuable for its, stimulant
effect upon the nervous and vascular systerm. It produces a feeling ( ouoexhilara certain stage of alcoholic FIG.
3.Microscopic structure of intoxication, but which Coffee. does not end in depression or collapse. It increases
the frequency of the pulse, lightens the sensation of fatigue, and it sustains the strength under prolonged and
severe muscular exertion. The value of its hot infusion under the rigours of Arctic cold has been demonstrated
in the experience of all Arctic explorers, and it is scarcely less useful in tropical regions, where it beneficially
stimulates the action of the skin.
The physiological action of coffee mainly depends on the presence of the alkaloid caffeine, which occurs also in
tea, Paraguay tea, and cola nuts, and is very similar to theobromine, the active principle in cocoa. The percentage
of caffeine present varies in the different species of Coffea. In Arabian coffee it ranges from about o~7 to 1.6%;
in Liberian coffee from IO to 1.5%. Sierra Leone coffee (C. stenophylla) contains from 1.52 to 1.70%; in C. excelsa
1.89% is recorded, and as much as 1.97% in C. cane phora. Four species have been shown by M. G. Bertrand to contain
no caffeine at all, but instead a considerable quantity of a bitter principle. All these four species are found
only in Madagascar or the neighboring islands. Other coffees grown there contain caffeine as usual. Coffee, with
the caffeine extracted, has also been recently prepared for the market. The commercial value of coffee is determined
by the amount of the aromatic oil, caffeone, which develops in it by the process of roasting. By prolonged keeping
it is found that the richness of any seeds in this peculiar oil is increased, and with increased aroma the coffee
also yields a blander and more mellow beverage. Stored coffee loses weight at first with great rapidity, as much
as 8% having been found to dissipate in the first year of keeping, 5% lii the second, and 2% in the third; but
such loss of weight is more than compensated by improvement in quality and consequent enhancement of value.
Roasting.In the process of roasting, coffee seeds swell up by the liberation of gases within their substance,their
weight decreasing in proportion. to the extent to which the operation is carried. Roasting also develops with the
aromatic caffeone above alluded to a bitter soluble principle, and it liberates a portion of the caffeine from
its combination with the caffetannic acid. Roasting is an operation of the greatest nicety, and one, moreover,
of a crucial nature, for equally by insufficient and by excessive roasting much of the aroma of the coffee is lost;
and its infusion is neither agreeable to the palate nor exhilarating in its influence. The roaster must judge of
the amount of heat required for the adequate roasting of different qualities, and while that is variable, the range
of roasting temperature proper for individual kinds is only narrow. In continental countries it is the practice
to roast in small quantities, and thus the whole charge is well under the control of the roaster; but in Britain
large roasts are the rule, in dealing with which much difficulty is experienced in producing uniform torref action,
and in stopping the process at the proper moment. The coffee-roasting apparatus is usually a malleable iron cylinder
mounted to revolve over the fire on a hollow axle which allows the escape of gases generated during torref action.
The roasting of coffee should be done as short a time as practicable before the grinding for use, and as ground
coffee especially parts rapidly with its aroma, the grinding should only be done when coffee is about to be prepared.
Adulteration.Although by microscopic, physical and chemical tests the purity of coffee can be determined with perfect
certainty, yet ground coffee is subjected to many and extensive adulterations (see also ADULTERATION). Chief among
the adulterant substances, if it can be so called, is chicory; but it occupies a peculiar position, since very
many people on the European continent as well as in Great Britain deliberately prefer a mixture of chicory with
coffee to pure coffee. Chicory is indeed destitute of the stimulant alkaloid and essential oil for which coffee
is valued; but the facts that it has stood the test of prolonged and extended use, and that its infusion is, in
some localities, used alone, indicate that it performs some useful function in connection with coffee, as used
at least by Western communities. For one thing, it yields a copious amount of soluble matter in infusion with hot
water, and thus gives a specious appearance of strength and substance towhat maybe reallyonly a very weak preparation
of coffee. The mixture of chicory with coffee is easily detected by the microscope, the structure of both, which
they retain after torrefaction, being very characteristic and distinct. The granules of coffee, moreover, remain
hard and angular when mixed with water, to which they communicate but little color; chicory, on the other hand,
swelling up and softening, yields a deep brown color to water in which it is thrown. The specific gravity of an
infusion of chicory is also much higher than that of coffee. Among the numerous other substances used to adulterate
coffee are roasted and ground roots of the dandelion, carrot, parsnip and beet; beans, lupins and other leguminous
seeds; wheat, rice and various cereal grains; the seeds of the broom, fenugreek and iris; acorns; negro coffee,
the seeds of Cassia occidentalis, the seeds of the ochro (Hibiscus esculentus), and also the soja or soy bean (Glycine
Soya). Not only have these with many more similar substances been used as adulterants, but under various high-sounding
names several of them have been introduced as substitutes for coffee; but they have neither merited nor obtained
any success, and their sole effect has been to bring coffee into undeserved disrepute with the public.
Not only is ground coffee adulterated, but such mixtures as flour, chicory and coffee, or even bran and molasses,
have been made up to simulate coffee beans and sold as such.
The leaves of the coffee tree contain caffeine in larger proportion than the seeds themselves, and their use as
a substitute for tea has frequently been suggested. The leaves are actually so used in Sumatra, but being destitute
of any attractive aroma such as is possessed by both tea and coffee, the infusion is not palatable. It is, moreover,
not practicable to obtain both seeds and leaves from the same plant, and as the commercial demand is for the seed
alone, no consideration either of profit or of any dietetic or economic advantage is likely to lead to the growth
of coffee trees on account of their leaves. (A. B. R.; W. G. F.)